Thermodynamics: ATP/ATP Hydrolysis and its Function in Living Organisms

It's 1:00pm and it's your lunch break.  You've been working on paperwork all day and you don't know whether or not you'll be able to make it to 6:00pm.  You go to a local cafe and you order your favorite meal: a pesto chicken sandwich and some Parmesan cheese fries.  After finishing your meal, you feel a rush of energy traveling through your body.  It's time to go back to work and you realize that the paperwork isn't as bad as you thought it was.  You're ready to finish it.  So what went on during the time you ate and the time you were ready to take on the rest of the day? You can thank an important nucleoside triphosphate molecule called ATP and a reaction that is often coupled with other chemical reactions in your body called ATP hydrolysis.

Adenosine Triphosphate and ATP Hydrolysis

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a nucleoside triphosphate molecule used in cells as a coenzyme which is essentially 'coupled' with a reaction in the body.  Coupled reactions can be defined as reactions where the product of one reaction (Rxn A) is consumed as reactant for another reaction (Rxn B).  The reaction slightly producing product (Rxn A) has a smaller K value (K = the equilibrium constant. This is when there is no net change between reactants and products.  The forward and reverse reactions occur at equal rates, so adding more reactant or product will no longer effect the reaction, i.e K = A + B  C, where K = a value that represents the concentration of product vs. the concentration of reactants at equilibrium, K = [C]^c / [A]^a [B]^b) compared to the reaction (Rxn B) that consumes it.  If K value is large, then the concentration (at equilibrium) of C is greater than the concentration of A times B (at equilibrium).  This means that the reaction is favorable towards the product, since more product is formed compared to reactants.  An example of a reaction with a small K value is when glutamate is combined with ammonia to produce glutamine.  Glutamine is an amino acid responsible for acid-base regulation in the kidney by producing ammonium (an acidic compound), cellular energy, nontoxic transporter of ammonia through the blood and much more.  This reaction on its own has a K value of 8e10^-6, meaning that if the reaction happens on its own, not enough glutamine will be produced for the body.  This is where ATP is coupled with the reaction to help produce glutamine at a greater rate.  The ATP reaction occurs this way: ATP + H2O → ADP+ Pi, where K is a lot greater than 1. This reaction is called ATP hydrolysis.

In this case, ATP hydrolysis is defined as a reaction in which chemical energy is released from the bonds between phosphate groups on the tail or the end of the ATP molecule.

Source: Animal Cell Biology

Because the K value is large, the product is extremely favorable.  The release of energy within the bonds, is used not only in these biochemical reactions, but also muscle contraction, metabolism: food and liquid break down, etc. ATP hydrolysis is used as a reaction coupled with an unfavorable (defined as a reaction that doesn't produce much product compared to reactants) reaction. The combination of the reactions is equal to adding both K values, giving an overall K value greater than one.  This ensures that glutamine will be produced at a higher rate.  K value > 1 is a product favored reaction at equilibrium.  The hydrolysis of ATP is coupled with many reactions that would not naturally produce much product, especially at the rate in which ATP does when coupled with the specific reaction.  Some examples of these products are oxidation/breakdown of ethanol (a highly toxic compound), muscle contraction to promote movement, energy for the sodium/potassium pump, and other metabolic reactions to keep organisms alive.  

Gibbs 'Free Energy' and its Relation to ATP

At this point, I've associated K value to ATP.  The larger the K value, the more product 'favored' the reaction, thus making the reaction move toward the products: a forward rate reaction.  Because ATP hydrolysis has an overall K value greater than 1, it is coupled with 'unfavorable' reactions to produce product at a greater rate.  The reason why ATP hydrolysis' equilibrium constant is greater than 1 is mostly due to the Gibbs 'free energy' constant (ΔG).   ΔG tells us the directionality (spontaneity) of the reaction at any concentration.  If ΔG < 0, the reaction is spontaneous (meaning it 'favors' the product), and if ΔG > 0 the reaction is considered non-spontaneous (reaction 'favors' reactants). If ΔG < 0, then K > 1, and if the G value > 0, then K < 1 and this due to thermodynamics.  

Thermodynamics refers to the study of the effects of work, heat and energy and how it effects a system.  A system is where the specific reaction takes place (where we want to focus on), and anything else around it is the surroundings.  The system + the surroundings is defined as the universe. According to the Second Law of Thermodynamics, for a process to be spontaneous, the  ΔS universe (S is a measure of how many ways a system can disperse energy at a given temperature.  If we have a large number of microstates - 'motional freedom' available at a given pressure and temperature - then the S is also large.  Observations suggest that reactions are spontaneous in the direction where the system has more microstates) must be greater than 0.  ΔS refers to the change in entropy (S), so if  ΔS > 0, the reaction is spontaneous, thus increasing its 'disorder.'  ΔH is also another change that occurs and it represents bond enthalpy/energy, i.e how much energy required to 'break' a bond (for simplicity's sake).  This unit is given in kJ/mol (a unit of energy).  If it takes a higher amount of energy to break a specific bond, ΔH increases and vice versa.  This is important because we can calculate ΔG of a reaction by subtracting ΔH by (T; a given temperature the reaction takes place, times ΔS).  The equation looks like this: ΔG = ΔH - TΔS.  Ultimately, we can see that if ΔH is a large number (304.2 kJ/mol) and ΔS of a reaction is a given constant (these are measurements that can be found for different compounds on websites or textbooks.  In this case, I've come up with a hypothetical number: 202.5 kJ/mol. Note: if we are just looking at entropy, this reaction should be spontaneous. but we must consider bond energy.  Because it's a greater number, entropy is insignificant to the spontaneity of the reaction.  Also, J must be converted to kJ to solve the equation.  G is usually given in units of  kJ, sometimes J), if T is a lower number such as 298 or 300K, then the reaction will not be spontaneous due to the large ΔH value.  ΔG > 0,  making the reaction non spontaneous thus 'favoring' the reactants.  To make sure ΔG < 0, we must increase T.  Increasing the T value will increase the value of T times ΔS.  So, when subtracting ΔH by TΔS we get a negative number.  Now, it is important to note that this cannot happen in living organisms.  Humans for example, have a somewhat constant body temperature. The average human body is 37 degrees Celsius plus or minus 0.6.  Although temperature can fluctuate a little bit, large fluctuations are dangerous to humans.  A body temperature above 41 degrees Celsius can lead to organ failure and ultimately death.  Because raising the temperature of the human body for non-spontaneous reactions is not the ideal method, the best way a non-spontaneous reaction can be spontaneous is the concept of coupled reactions.  This is where the reaction of ATP breaking down into ADP or ATP hydrolysis comes into place.  

Source: Hyper Physics

This reaction has a ΔG value of about -57 kJ( in a living cell), this depends on the source you use.  No matter what though, it still has a G value less than 0 (Note: I am writing the G value in units of kJ, it is professionally written as kJ/mol, but we can assume that there is a certain amount of energy required for every mole in the reaction for a spontaneous or non-spontaneous reaction). The negative G value makes it a spontaneous reaction. This reaction is then paired with other reactions that are considered non-spontaneous in the body.  For instance, let's consider the glutamate to glutamine reaction.  This reaction has a  ΔG of +14 kJ.  Because the G value is greater than 0, the reaction is non-spontaneous.  By itself, the body will not produce as much glutamine as the body needs in order to function properly.  This reaction favors the reactants, so at equilibrium the concentration of glutamate is a lot larger than the concentration of glutamine.  This is inefficient for the body, therefore, this reaction is paired up with ATP. ATP is a high energy molecule. ATP can be compared to a rechargeable battery that never dies. Because ATP is at such high energy, breaking one phosphate bond (now an ADP molecule) releases a large amount of energy (about 57 kJ) which assists other reactions in cellular respiration, ethanol breakdown and muscle contraction.  ADP converts back to ATP when food is broken down and oxidized.  The energy of that reaction basically restores the high energy phosphate bond so that ADP becomes ATP.



Which Organisms Have ATP and What is its Function?

Almost all eukaryotes produce and maintain ATP. ATP is created in the mitochondria also known as the "powerhouse of the cell".  Some parasite species are found to have ATP synthase, although the function of ATP isn't all that clear. Both bacteria and parasites can still produce ATP via glycosis since they do not have mitochondria.  The ATP produced during glycosis is very small compared to the ATP created by eukaryotes such as humans, dogs, whales, etc.  For parasites, the host provides oxygen and other nutrients and that's the main way parasites produce ATP.  Parasites use the ATP for a source of energy, since the amount made from glycosis is very small.  This continues until the host dies or the parasite is ejected from the system. Bacteria differs from parasites; they have a similar structure to mitochondria.  Both bacteria and mitochondria produce ATP in a similar way, fuel from oxygen and glucose to create a phosphate bond to ADP.  The main difference is that in mitochondria, the ATP production process occurs inside the organelle while in bacteria it occurs in the cell membrane.

ATP production in mitochondria

The citric acid cycle is active in the inner membrane, this generates NADH which enters the electron transport chain on the inner membrane and pump protons (H+) into the mitochondrial intermembrane space. Those protons are pushed back into the inner membrane by ATP synthase.  ATP synthase is an enzyme that is used to create ATP.  The end product of the cycle is ATP which is stored in the mitochondria for later use.

The ATP process is similar in bacteria:

Like mentioned previously, the only main difference is that bacteria use their entire cell body for the ATP process.

If simple prokaryotes and complex living organisms share the same molecule (ATP), it must be essential for life.  I want to focus on ATP's specific functions in complex organisms and why ATP is an important part of certain processes.  As mentioned earlier, the breaking of a phosphate bond in ATP releases a lot of energy, producing ADP.  This reaction is coupled with many non-spontaneous reactions in the body to make them spontaneous.  Thus, creating a product at a greater rate for the body to use.

Some of the reactions coupled with ATP:

• Conversion of acetic acid to acetyl CoA: ACSS2 in the process of ethanol breakdown
• Actin movement during muscle contraction/relaxation
• Sodium/Potassium pumps in nerve cells

Conversion of acetic acid to acetyl CoA: ACSS2

Ethanol is a toxic compound that can be found in a variety of things including fruit and alcohol.  Ethanol occurs when yeast ferments sugars. This can happen naturally, i.e, in ripe or overly ripe fruit, or it can be found in alcohol.  Due to adaptation and evolution, living organisms today can break down ethanol so that the volatile, flammable compound does not stay in the system to harm the organism's body.  The breakdown of ethanol takes multiple steps.  The step that ATP is involved in is the conversion of acetic acid to acyetyl CoA.  This is a vital step in ethanol breakdown because it transports the carbon atoms from the acetyl group to the citric acid cycle (this cycle is mentioned during the ATP production process in mitochondria.  The carbon atoms are oxidized and used for energy production).  The enzyme involved in the transformation of acetic acid in acetyl CoA is ACSS2.  This is a cytosolic enzyme that catalyzes the activation of acetate for lipid synthesis and energy generation. The protein acts as a monomer and produces from acetyl CoA. This reaction requires ATP.  Once acetyl CoA is formed, its carbon atoms are used in the citric acid cycle.  The breakdown of ethanol into the different steps not only removes the toxic compound out of the bloodstream/system, but is ultimately converted into energy used to produce and maintain ATP in the organism's body. 

Actin movement during muscle contraction/relaxation

Muscle contraction refers to the activation of tension-gathering sites within muscle fibers.  This is when the muscle tension changes but the length remains the same, or the muscle length changes but the muscle tension remains the same.  This process is what helps us humans and other vertebrates move.  ATP plays an important part in this process by disconnecting actin from myosin.  It is then hydrolyzed by the myosin molecule to produce the energy required for muscle contraction. This description of the different biochemical steps involved in muscle contraction is referred to as the Lymn-Taylor actomyosin ATPase hydrolysis mechanism. This process can be given in four steps:

• The actin-myosin bridge very rapidly dissociates due to ATP binding to myosin (when a reaction is coupled, the spontaneous reaction will consume a specific reactant, causing more product).
• The free myosin bridge moves into position to attach to actin, during which ATP is hydrolyzed.
• The free myosin bridge along with its hydrolysis products rebinds to the actin strand.
• The cross-bridge generates force, and actin displaces the reaction products (ADP and Pi) from the myosin cross-bridge. This is the rate-limiting step of contraction. 

The rate limiting step refers to the rate law of the slowest step in the mechanism.  It is also considered the rate law of the overall reaction since all reactions must 'wait' for the slowest step to reach equilibrium. After this last step, the actin-myosin cross-bridge is now ready for the ATP binding of step 1 and the process continues.

This process is important for movement not only in humans but other vertabrates as well.

 

Sodium/Potassium pumps in nerve cells

Sodium/potassium pumps also known as sodium/potassium -ATPase is an enzyme found in the plasma membrane of all animal cells, including humans.  This enzyme pumps sodium out of the cell membrane while pumping potassium into the membrane.  This process works against electronegativity and diffusion. Essentially, the positive ions want to neutralize the negative ions, balancing the charge. The sodium/potassium -ATPase helps regulate and maintain the resting potential of a nerve cell.  This pump basically forces the more positive Na+ (sodium ions) out of the cell membrane, while bringing/keeping some K+ (potassium ions) in.  This keeps the nerve cell at a slightly negative charge (its resting potential), so that it can get reactivated again once strong enough stimuli interact with the neuron.  ATP can be compared to a gate: the sodium ions bind with ATP and the splitting of ATP (ATP hydrolysis: formation of ADP) exerts energy and is a spontaneous reaction.  This ultimately changes the shape of the channel, releasing the sodium ions to the outside of the membrane.  Now, two potassium ions bond with the channel, the pump pushes the potassium ions into the inside of the membrane also releasing a phosphate and ATP is remade.  This process is constantly occurring in our bodies.  Without ATP, the pump would not be able to work (since it requires a lot of  energy) and our neurons would not be able to go back to its resting state.



ATP & Na+/K+ Pump (Source: Celtic Sea Salt)

ATP is not only used to be coupled with a non-spontaneous (unfavorable) reaction, but it is an essential molecule and source of energy created when we consume food, drinks, etc.  Glucose - which is ultimately what our food is converted to - written also as C6H12O6, is used as an energy source in most organisms.  Through processes such as the citric acid cycle or glycosis (previously discussed), the glucose is eventually oxidized into CO2 and H2O creating energy mostly in the form of ATP.  This is the most efficient way our body produces and maintains ATP.  As living organisms (even plants), we must provide our bodies with energy to keep it going.  Plants use a process called photosynthesis, but complex organisms such as humans, sharks, gorillas, chimps, etc. must get their energy from food.  When the food breaks down into glucose and then eventually CO2 and H2O, our body has created massive amounts of energy (ATP) that is stored in our mitochondria until it needs to be used as ATP hydrolysis. 

Recall the scenario at the beginning of the post: the reason 'you' feel energized after eating, is because your body has done this exact process (in simple terms): food to glucose, glucose oxidized to CO2 and H2O.  Both this reaction and the ATP hydrolysis coupled reactions help produce energy for your body. Ultimately, keeping it running.


References & Other Links Relating to ATP/ATP Hydrolysis


'Free Energy' Gibbs and ATP

1) Better Biochemistry: The Free Energy of ATP Hydrolysis

2) Metabolism Is Composed of Many Coupled, Interconnecting Reactions

3) FREE ENERGY, ATP HYDROLYSIS PHOSPHORYLATION POTENTIAL

4) The Structure and Hydrolysis of ATP

5) ATP and reaction coupling

6) Catalysis and the Use of Energy by Cells

7) Professor Nauli's Webpage


Muscle Contraction

1) ATP Analogs and Muscle Contraction: Mechanics and Kinetics of Nucleoside Triphosphate Binding and Hydrolysis

2) Mechanical effects of muscle contraction increase intravascular ATP draining quiescent and active skeletal muscle in humans

3) Different effects of ATP on the contractile activity of mice diaphragmatic and skeletal muscles

4) A model for actin polymerization and the kinetic effects of ATP hydrolysis


Mitochondria, Bacteria/Parasites & ATP

1) ATP Synthase Complex of Plasmodium falciparum

2) Use of l-Proline and ATP Production by Trypanosoma cruzi Metacyclic Forms as Requirements for Host Cell Invasion

3) Reconstruction of Sugar Metabolic Pathways of Giardia lamblia

4) Mitochondria-Dependent Reactive Oxygen Species-Mediated Programmed Cell Death Induced by 3,3′-Diindolylmethane through Inhibition of F0F1-ATP Synthase in Unicellular Protozoan Parasite Leishmania donovani

5) Host Cell Egress and Invasion Induce Marked Relocations of Glycolytic Enzymes in Toxoplasma gondii Tachyzoites

6) Niche metabolism in parasitic protozoa

7) On the Origin of Mitochondria: Reasons for Skepticism on the Endosymbiotic Story

8) Mitochondrial Evolution

9) Reproduction, symbiosis, and the eukaryotic cell

10) On the Origin of the Eukaryotic Cell


Sodium/Potassium Pump

1) The Sodium-Potassium Pump

2) STRUCTURE AND MECHANISM OF Na,K-ATPASE

Short Analysis: General Traits That Women Look For in Potential Male Partners (Including a Long-Term Male Partner)

Note: This analysis is only based on evolutionary traits and general characteristics.  There is a lot more that goes into picking a long-term mate that I have not discussed in this analysis.  I am also focusing on female's mate preference rather than males.  Both are similar and different in certain ways. I will post a longer analysis of sexual differences in both males and females and how it effects division of labor, sexual selection, etc. sometime in the near future.  That analysis will go more in depth about these different topics. 

What do women look for in a potential partner? A new study suggests that women who prefer physically formidable and dominant mates tend to feel more at risk of crime, regardless of the situational risk factors present.  Their results show that women who felt more at risk of criminal victimization (even if risk was low), were most likely to prefer physically strong and dominant men for protection.

Although this could be a factor to mate preference, women generally prefer dominant (not only  physical strength, but confidence, leadership skills, fitness/good health, higher social status, etc.) partners not only for protection, but stability, and passing of genes. Like the study states, men who are more dominant and also physically robust, will most likely be better at protecting their partner.  A woman who mates with a more dominant male is more likely to have offspring that inherit the genes that contribute to 'dominance' such as strength and good health in the future. Also, a partner with a higher social status will most likely provide financial stability for the child. These factors are all important in mate preference for women. I will be focusing on the evolutionary history behind these reasons and how it can be related to modern society.


Sexual Selection

Sexual selection can be defined as a form of natural selection arising through preference by one sex for certain characteristics in individuals of the other sex.  For example, the male Bowerbird will make a tent-like nest out of twigs, branches and other colorful objects to attract a female partner.  The most elaborate and colorful nests attract the female Bowerbirds and they mate with the male(s) who make them, due to the fact that they can provide a 'good' set of genes for their offspring.   This can be related to humans because both men and women are attracted to the other sex due to different characteristics.  Males look for many characteristics in a potential female mate. One interesting characteristic is that males tend to be more attracted to women who have larger hips and/or bigger breasts.  One reason for this is because it shows that the woman can maintain body fat on her and this is beneficial during pregnancy.  During pregnancy, women must increase their calorie intake to feed their offspring.  Extra body fat makes it easier for women during this process.  Women are attracted to men who can provide, are healthy, and are successful in the environment they are in (i.e work).  This shows women that their potential partner is confident and able to get things done.  This is important for women because they invest long periods of time when raising their offspring. Women not only prefer that a 'good' set of genes are passed down to their offspring, but also that both parents can support the child financially and emotionally.


Gene Heredity and how Dominance, Confidence and Fitness Effect Male Partner Preference for Women

During ancient times, such as the time of mostly hunter-gatherer or early agricultural societies, a physically dominant male was the most attractive to females.  The reason why is because those alpha males were better suited to lead tribes, maintain resources and take care of women/children.  During those times, women who mated with the alpha male were more likely to have offspring that would inherit the genes predisposed to characteristics of dominance, such as strength which leads to an increase in confidence, and were less likely to inherit genes for certain health risks.  In today's society, physical attractiveness isn't the main factor when preferring a long-term mate. Although women may prefer attractive males, women mostly look for a partner who is healthy and isn't predisposed to serious health complications. A male partner who has good skin, is able to reproduce, and has little to no health risks (such as heart disease, auto-immune disorders) might pass on those genetic markers to their male offspring. Thus, making sure the offspring can also pass on their 'good' set of genes if they are found to be physically fit (healthy) to females.  Not only are physical/biological characteristics attractive to females when finding a mate, but another important factor is social status.


Social Status and how it Effects Male Partner Preference for Women

Social status is an important factor when it comes to women preferring specific male partners.  Biology is an important factor as well, but a potential partner's social status can effect the choice a woman makes when choosing a future companion.  Higher social status means that the individual is working in a field where they are successful and have important responsibilities.  This not only shows a woman that the potential partner is a good leader, is successful (able to take on a lot), but also that they are financially stable.  This is important because women must invest time raising their child.  A partner who is financially stable will be able to help provide for the child without complications.  Because women ovulate about once a month, they are cautious when it comes to picking a mate (generally speaking, men produce sperm a lot more than women ovulate, giving some leniency to men when picking partners.  Meaning that men can spread their genes more often than a woman can. This is because the woman must invest 9 months carrying the child and about a year or so breast-feeding it. I am not disregarding the fact that men are cautious as well when picking mates. They must be since they as well will be investing time and effort into the relationship. They will also be investing time and effort into the child if the female is a long-term partner).  So, when women look for a potential life-long partner, they are looking for someone who can provide stability and will invest time and goods into the woman and child's life.  This isn't the only reason why women look for men who have a higher social status.  Like mentioned previously, males who have a higher social status compared to others, show females that they can be good leaders and are responsible.  This shows the potential female partner that their offspring might 1) acquire specific traits that can make it easier for the offspring to develop those certain characteristics (thus making them more attractive to a potential partner in the future) and 2) that the child will be associated with a higher status in the future.  This is important not only now, but in the past as well.  A child who belonged to a leader of a specific tribe, society, etc., were most likely treated differently than the other children.  They had more privileges and opportunities.  In modern times, this is beneficial for the offspring due to the fact that not only would they be financially supported, but in the future would have certain connections and opportunities that others might not have.

In conclusion, there are many factors that determine whether or not a female prefers a male partner to have a relationship with and/or a child with.  I only focused on two simple/main ones: physical characteristics/biology, i.e no genetic diseases, good health, etc., and social status.  There are many more factors that are present in mate-picking that go beyond the general concepts I have discussed. Ultimately, women invest more time when raising their offspring, so choosing a mate (surface level in the case of this analysis) with specific characteristics that would benefit the child is ideal.  For that reason, we can see how most women prefer dominant men ('good' genetic factors, physical attractiveness, higher social status) rather than men who are not as dominant.


Links on Sexual Selection & Mate Preference

1) Women who feel more at risk of crime also prefer physically dominant partners

2) Evolution of Human Mate Choice

3) Partner Preferences: Short Term vs Long Term

4) Sociosexuality and Romantic

5) Social influence in human face preference: men and women are influenced more for long-term than short-term attractiveness decisions

6) Female waist-to-hip and male waist-to-shoulder ratios as determinants of romantic partner desirability

7) The Evolutionary Psychology of Human Mate Choice: How Ecology, Genes, Fertility, and Fashion Influence Mating Behavior

8) Female copulatory orgasm and male partner’s attractiveness to his partner and other women

9) Good genes, complementary genes and human mate preferences

10) Human Mate Preferences: Tested in 37 Cultures

How Accurate are the Various Forensic Techniques Used in Criminal Cases?

On the morning of June 25, 1982, two Latino men broke into a woman's apartment in Stock Island, Florida. One of the men sexually assaulted the woman and had deposited semen on her clothes.  After the perpetrators left, the victim called the police and described the situation, noting that the Latino man who was in her bedroom was not wearing a shirt and had no hair.  The officers who were contacted, searched locations near the perimeter of the crime scene.  They found a man who fit the description.  He had no shirt, no hair and was of Latino descent.  He was at a convenient store parking lot near the victim's apartment.  The victim identified this man as the perpetrator who was in her bedroom.  The man who was identified was Orlando Boquete.  Boquete was arrested and charged with burglary and attempted sexual battery.  Although Boquete testified that he was with his family all night and later went to the convenient store with his cousins, the victim had identified him as the perpetrator and a blood test analysis did not eliminate him as a suspect (Type A blood and other spots were found at the crime scene.  Boquete was tested and the results showed that Boquete had Type O blood.  He was not excluded because the spots that did not have markers could have been his).  After Boquete's trial, he was sentenced to 50 years in prison.  After spending almost half the time, Boquete was exonerated based on DNA tests from the victim's clothing.  Orlando Boquete was a free man after 23 years.

Boquete is not the first man to have been exonerated for eyewitness misidentification and/or improper forensic science.  According to the Innocence Project, 337 people in the US have been exonerated since 1989 due to DNA tests that have proved them to be innocent.  The two main causes of false convictions are eyewitness misidentification and 'improper' forensic science analyses .  But recently, another possible cause (not as common as the other two), are the flaws in DNA processes.  In this post, I will address the two main causes, and note ways forensic analysts and anthropologists have used more precise and accurate techniques to exonerate the innocent people convicted. Then, I will discuss a new possible factor of false convictions caused by flaws in DNA processes and what ways the technique can be improved objectively.

Eyewitness Misidentification

Eyewitness misidentification is one main factor that is related to false convictions.  According to the Innocence Project, when looking at 179 cases of people falsely convicted, 75% were due to eyewitness misidentification.  Eyewitness misidentification can be a result of many factors.  One such factor is the concept of false memories.  False memories can occur based on a variety of reasons, but one important reason that I want to discuss further, is how post-event information (such as media coverage on the incident) and/or misleading information/evidence/statements effect the victim when identifying the perpetrator. 

According to Loftus, (2003) Roediger & Gallo, (2004) and Schacter & Scarry (2000),

"False memory refers to the memory distortion in which people sometimes develop vivid and detailed recollections of events that were never experienced; or people confuse events that happened before or after the target event with the event itself."

False memories are not only a factor in eyewitness misidentification, but an occurrence in peoples normal lives. When recalling childhood memories, one might think that they are accurately remembering an event that occurred in their childhood, but, might actually be a 'memory' influenced by interactions and experiences in life.  Researchers conducted a study in 1995 to better understand the concept of false memories.  Their subjects consisted of 20 college students who were interviewed by researchers about specific events that occurred in their childhood.  The researchers sent a questionnaire to the subjects' parents for specific information.  The questionnaire included things such as the age of the subject (range from two to ten) when they experienced any of the six categories (listed below), as well as distinct information about the specific events.

1. Getting lost
2. Going to the hospital
3. An eventful birthday
4. Loss of a pet
5. A family vacation
6. Interaction with a prominent or famous person

In one of the experiments, the researchers interviewed the subjects twice about events that occurred in their childhood and compared the results to their parents questionnaire (which depicted the more accurate result).  The researchers included false information for some events along with true information for others.   In the first interview, subjects recalled 62 out of the 74 true events. (an average of 3.7 events per subject).  In the second interview (which took place a couple days - a week after), 4 out of the 20 subjects incorporated the misleading/false information when they described two events they had 'recalled' after the first interview.  The researchers stated that this was due to connecting the false information to something true that occurred.  For example, one of the subjects knew the event of having a birthday party was real, and accepted the false information (a clown attending the party) as something that could have occurred.  The fact that the subjects recalled false details based on the information the researchers gave them, can be compared to eyewitness memories.  Both can be distorted after the event (first interview in the case of the study), based on post-event information.  In the case of the study, the false information given to the subjects by the researchers, contributed to the subject 'recalling' specific details of a simple event that occurred (birthday party). One thing to note in this study is that it includes a small sample size and the subjects are close to the same age.  This might lead to skewed results.  However, there are other studies that show that regardless of sample size, age and sex, the results are similar.  False/misleading information can alter the memory of the individual when recalling a specific event.

The main reason this occurs, is because the brain has not evolved to remember every specific detail of every event that has transpired in one's life.  If this were the case, there wouldn't be as much room for other useful information, and people would have to remember memories that they would rather want to forget.  So, the brain has evolved to remember very impactful and important memories (long-term memories), rather than minor information, such as a shirt someone wore, what you ate a week ago, etc. (as long as none of those details are meaningful, you most likely wont remember them as vividly as your first pet, your first job and so forth). Well, what causes one to remember some events for a longer period of time, compared to minor details/unimportant events for a few seconds to a minute? An answer to that lies within where specific information is stored based on the 'type of memory' it is.  For simplicity's sake, the human memory can be broken down into two parts; short-term and long-term memory.  Once a memory is created, it's stored in the brain.  Like I mentioned previously, because the brain does not keep all the information it receives, it must find a way to filter the stimuli and store it into the proper category it belongs in. Once a sensory stimuli has reached neurotransmitters in the brain, it activates regions of the prefrontal cortex which then processes and temporarily stores the information.  The information starts off as short-term memory (which can only hold up to 7 plus/minus 2 items for about several seconds to a minute), but, depending on the significance of the information, or how much one has repeated it over and over again, the brain will determine whether or not it will transfer the STM information into long-term memory. Long-term memory differs from STM due to the fact that it takes multiple processes to store LTM.  One important process of storing stimuli/information as LTM, is a process called long-term potentiation.  This process consists of strengthening the synapses in the neurons, which ultimately leads to remembering the information more accurately and for a longer period of time.  The hippocampus is also an important factor to LTM storage.  The hippocampus plays an important role in fusing information from STM to LTM, likely strengthening/reconfiguring neural connections for several months.  It's likely that the reason why most eyewitnesses cant remember specific details of the suspects appearance and clothing, are due to the fact that those minor details are not as significant as the event itself.  If one witnesses a car accident, is a victim of robbery or assault, the event itself is impactful enough to be stored as LTM.  The specific details are remembered as STM, but soon disappears after several seconds.  

Eyewitness testimonies can be unreliable when looking at how long STM is stored in the brain. How post-event information based on other peoples interpretations of the incident, false information, misleading evidence and statements can effect the victim when trying to identify their perpetrator.  Although eyewitness testimonies are still used today, there are ways to be more accurate. DNA testing is the most objective route, but if that is not an option, there are guidelines on whether or not a witness' testimony can be considered. 

'Improper' Forensic Science Tests

Improper forensic tests are another component of false convictions.  Improper forensic tests/analyses are defined as tests that can be unreliable and inaccurate.  Pattern-matching tests can be considered undependable and some examples of these analyses are bite mark analysis, blood spatter, and even fingerprint analysis.  Bite mark analysis can be inaccurate due to several factors.  One is that there aren't predetermined scientific guidelines and rules on how an expert goes about identifying the bite mark(s).  The expert identifies the suspect based on patterns from the suspects teeth compared to the pattern of the bite mark (i.e size, depth, gaps, etc.), this is based on subjective analysis of qualitative data rather than objective evidence.  According to the Innocence Project, another reason why bite mark analysis isn't as reliable is because most of the time the forensic odontologist is self-employed and not accredited by a scientific entity, thus receiving no oversight during analysis of the bite mark. There are cases where people have been exonerated for inaccurate convictions based on bite mark analysis.

Another example of a forensic test that has falsely convicted people is the blood spatter analysis.  Blood spatter analysis refers to the interpretation of the pattern, size and shape of the blood found at the crime scene. This assists forensic specialists in coming up with a conclusion about what occurred and how.  According to the National Institute of Justice, when a panel of experienced blood spatter analysts tried to examine and identify specific blood patterns, "13.1% of these classifications did not include the correct pattern type for the rigid surfaces and 23.4% for fabric surfaces. The highest rates of misclassification were 59% for satellite stains (pg. 3) from a drip pattern on fabric surfaces and 19% for impact patterns (pg. 2) on rigid surfaces." These results show similar subjectivity to bite mark analysis (pattern-matching).  Blood can also get contaminated and mixed in with the victims, thus confusing experts when trying to figure out whose blood it is and what the blood stain represents (when forming an opinion about what occurred).  Before DNA tests, blood spatter, hair, bite mark and fingerprint analysis were the main techniques used to determine and convict suspects.  These forensic techniques are mostly based on pattern-matching, identifying suspects based on a similarity between the pattern observed from the data and a specific trait the suspect possesses.  

DNA tests have been the main factor in exonerating the falsely accused and convicted.  In the example of analyzing a bite mark, genetic material can be recovered through the saliva where the bite mark occurred on the skin.  This is the more objective route because although DNA testing isn't perfect, the accuracy is a lot higher than that of an expert's qualitative assumption based on certain markings.  If done properly and carefully, DNA testing can also help authorities identify a suspect in a crime scene with blood spatter.  A major drawback to that is whether or not the blood has been contaminated. 

Flaws in DNA Processing/Software

DNA testing at crime scenes seems to be the most accurate way to convict a suspect.  Taking into account human errors and possibility of contamination, the odds of a coincidental match is 1 in 1 trillion (this varies based on where you look).  Sounds pretty accurate right? Well, recently three scientists who worked for the New York State Police (NYSP) crime lab have sued the agency, and alleged that administrators retaliated against the scientists who found flaws with the NYSP's way of processing DNA.  The scientists supported and recommended another program called TrueAllele that the NYSP implemented for a little bit, and then got rid of.  TrueAllele is a computerized system that "removes an element of subjectivity from the analysis called Combined Probability of Inclusion that the agency has been using for mixed DNA crime scenes, which is inaccurate especially concerning relatives with similar genetics," the scientists mention.  Although TrueAllele has been successful thus far convicting the people who are 'guilty,' some suggest that the software's secrecy is a little suspicious.  Cybergenetics, the company that runs TrueAllele claims that their source code is a trade secret and that revealing their code would ruin the company financially (since their competitors would know the code).  They claim that objective peer-reviewed studies have been done on TrueAllele and that this software has been used for over 200 cases. The fact that Cybergenetics has denied to share the code, raises suspicion on what methods they use to validate conviction of the suspect. According to the company, they objectively use a two step system to separate the contaminated sample. Based on mathematical models, they show which amount of DNA is more dominant in the sample.  With that, they can prosecute anyone who was at the crime scene (this may include accomplices and/or bystanders).  Like noted previously, contamination can occur during transportation processes, examination processes or from the crime scene itself and this can cause error when determining suspects.

In conclusion, although there are multiple techniques to solve a crime, all are inaccurate in their own way.  Eye witness testimony and bite mark analysis being the most inaccurate followed by blood spatter analysis.  DNA testing is still the most accurate out of the techniques, but it can be inaccurate if there is contamination or mixing.  Software such as TrueAllele, is said to perform with high accuracy, thus precisely extracting DNA from contaminated species.  With that, prosecutors can convict perpetrators and/or accomplices with greater accuracy.  However, the fact that Cybergenetics hides their TrueAllele software code and refused to share it in court, has given people the impression that this software may be flawed or biased. One of their 'peer reviewed' and 'objective' studies are done by their own employees at Cybergenetics.  Based on previous readings of companies/governments doing their own research, I am also skeptical about TrueAllele's code design and accuracy. As of now though, it is important to try to use forensic science techniques (especially DNA since it is the most accurate) as objectively as possible.  It's easier said than done when it comes to the US judicial system. DNA samples should be treated carefully and acquired immediately at the crime scene to lower the risks of contamination. If DNA testing isn't useful or a reliable option at the crime scene, third parties such as forensic anthropologists, chemists, physicists, etc. should be hired for specific situations to confirm or disprove a certain analysis. 

Currently, DNA testing and analysis have assisted in exonerating innocent people who have been sent to prison.  Once technology gets better and companies are willing to share codes to keep improving existing software, there will be a chance of less false convictions. So, people like Orlando Boquete don't sit in a prison cell for 23 years for a crime they didn't commit.

References

Innocence Project + Exonerations: 

1) DNA Exonerations Nationwide

2) Orlando Boquete

3) REEVALUATING LINEUPS: WHY WITNESSES MAKE MISTAKES AND HOW TO REDUCE THE CHANCE OF A MISIDENTIFICATION

4) Cases Where DNA Revealed that Bite Mark Analysis Led to Wrongful Arrests and Convictions

5) Exonerations in the United States 1989 through 2003

Eyewitness Misidentification and STM vs LTM: 

1) MAI 310.02 [2016 New] EYEWITNESS IDENTIFICATION TESTIMONY

2) Eyewitness identification

3) A National Survey of Eyewitness Identification Procedures in Law Enforcement Agencies

4) Individual differences in false memory from misinformation: Cognitive factors

5) The Cognitive Neuroscience of Implicit and False Memories: Perspectives on Processing Specificity

6) Neural Evidence That Vivid Imagining Can Lead to False Remembering

7) False Memories of Childhood Experiences

8) Leading Questions and the Eyewitness Report

9) THE RELIABILITY OF EYEWITNESS REPORTS: THE EFFECT OF ACCURATE AND INACCURATE INFORMATION ON MEMORY AND BIAS

10) The Formation of False Memories

11) Short-Term Memory and Working Memory

12) The Capacity of Visual ShortTerm Memory Is Set Both by Visual Information Load and by Number of Objects

13) SHORT-TERM (WORKING) MEMORY

14) LONG-TERM MEMORY

15) Long-term potentiation

16) Ryan W. Ferguson

Bite Mark Analysis:

1) Bitten by Experts (Intercept article)

2) Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States: A Path Forward

3) BiteMark Analysis

4) How the flawed ‘science’ of bite mark analysis has sent innocent people to prison (Washington Post)

5) U.S. Mississippi Death Row Case Faults Bite-Mark Forensics

Blood Spatter Analysis:

1) Reliability Assessment of Current Methods in Bloodstain Pattern Analysis

2) BLOOD SPATTER TERMINOLOGY

3) Human bite mark identification and DNA technology in forensic dentistry

DNA & TrueAllele Software:

1) How DNA contamination can affect court cases

2) Accuracy of DNA "Matches" to Definitively Identify Suspects Questioned

3) Scientists sue state police over 'pro-prosecution' DNA lab

4) TrueAllele Casework on Virginia DNA Mixture Evidence: Computer and Manual Interpretation in 72 Reported Criminal Cases (done by researchers employed or 'affiliated' with Cybergenetics)

5) Secret source code pronounces you guilty as charged [Updated]

6) DNA Casework

7) THE PEOPLE, Petitioner, v. THE SUPERIOR COURT OF LOS ANGELES COUNTY, Respondent; MARTELL CHUBBS

8) Cybergenetics November 2015 Newsletter

9) Judge Denies Access to Source Code for DNA Software Used in Criminal Cases (WSJ article)

10) Evidence Collection and Preservation

A Critical Analysis of Eye in The Sky by Philip K. Dick

Before I reveal my perspective and analysis on this fascinating book, it's only appropriate to include the summary, for anyone who might be interested in reading it.

"When a routine tour of a particle accelerator goes awry, Jack Hamilton and the rest of his tour group find themselves in a world ruled by Old Testament morality, where the smallest infraction can bring about a plague of locusts. Escape from that world is not the end, though, as they plunge into a Communist dystopia and a world where everything is an enemy." (I took this from the back of the copy I own).  

WARNING: SPOILERS AHEAD

Recently, I have gotten into Philip K. Dick's work.  I have so far read Ubik and just finished reading Eye in the Sky.  What's interesting about the two, are the reoccurring themes and ambiguity in the ending of both novels.  Dick has a way of pulling his audience in and having them experience what the main protagonist in the story is experiencing.  The audience is looking through the eyes of that character.  Whatever they see, the audience sees. Readers have a limited perspective on the world, just like the character. I will be exploring this concept throughout the post, focusing on the brilliant novel, Eye in the Sky.

Cover of the first edition. Source: Wikipedia, Eye in the Sky (Novel)

An In Depth Summary

If you have already read this book, feel free to skip to the Analysis

Jack Hamilton, the main protagonist in Eye of the Sky, works for Colonel T.E Edwards at the California Maintenance Labs, where they work on missiles and other top secret research for the government.  Because their projects are not out in the public, the company is extremely strict on any security risks (keep this in mind, because it is extremely important for later on in the plot).  Colonel Edwards has received information that Hamilton's wife, Marsha, is a plant security risk based on a report he received.  The report was brought to him by Hamilton's closest coworker (or at least that is what I assumed), Charley McFeyffe.  The report includes meetings that Marsha has attended and petitions she's signed that lead Colonel Edwards to believe that Marsha is a communist (the story takes place in the late 1950s). Colonel Edwards suspends Hamilton, and tells him to bring conclusive evidence that she is not a communist or to get rid of her.  After this meeting, McFeyffe approaches Hamilton and offers to take Hamilton and his wife out for drinks, but they end up attending a routine tour of a proton particle accelerator called the Belmont Bevatron. 

"The central element of the Bevatron is the giant magnet whose field accelerates the beam of protons and provides them with increasing ionization. The positively charged protons are introduced into the linear chamber from the Cockroft-Walton acceleration tube." (Dick, 14)

The three of them end up joining a group of other people interested in viewing the Bevatron as well. The group consists of an old man who is a war veteran, Arthur Silvester. A middle aged plump woman, Edith Pritchet, her young son, David Pritchet and a woman named Joan Reiss.  Their tour guide, Bill Laws, a black man who has great knowledge and experience in the field of physics, keeps the group together, until an alarm goes off and the Bevatron accelerator creates an explosion that leaves everyone 'unconscious.'  After the incident, Hamilton wakes up in a hospital bed beside his wife, Marsha.  Both have a weird feeling about their environment but can't seem to think of why they feel that way. On their way home, Hamilton is stung by a bee (this is important to keep in mind for later parts of the novel).  After heading home and resting, Hamilton ends up getting a new job the day after the incident at Electronics Development Agency (EDA), from a man named Doctor Guy Tillingford (who knew Hamilton's father).  The company is working on a way to communicate with God and Tillingford gives Hamilton an important note containing information on where he can find a prophet who will assist him with any confusions he has.  Hamilton then discovers that he is living in a world where he must pray to get certain things and disassociate himself from activities of sin.  This is important because he meets a 'prostitute' named Silky at a local bar called Safe Harbor where he goes for drinks.  She is enticing and Hamilton is attracted to her (I will go into a little more detail about why this is important in the analysis).  McFeyffe is also at the bar and the three of them decide to head out while McFeyffe drives them around town, stopping at an old rundown church.  Inside the church, a man, Father O'Farrel who recites a phrase in Latin, causes McFeyffe and Hamilton to ascend while holding onto an umbrella. They end up high enough where they can witness the sun revolving around the earth (the geocentric model).  They also notice that there isn't any other planet besides Earth.  As they are ascending they catch a glimpse of an eye, McFeyffe freaks out and the eye stares at them and focuses on their umbrella, thus making it pop.  Hamilton and McFeyffe both start descending to what Hamilton compares to a hell-like world.  They both end up near the location of where the prophet can be found (Cheyenne, Wyoming). Hamilton meets with the prophet and finds out that there is a god whose name isn't known but is called (Tetragrammaton).  The world revolves around the idea that (Tetragrammaton) will give the characters what they 'deserve'; whether it is reward or punishment. He will give the people food, drinks, a running car, etc. or if they 'deserve' to be punished, they will get locusts on them, boils, acne, anything that will interfere with the character's physical appearance.  At that moment, Hamilton notices a plaque of names of people who are faithful to the 'One True Faith.'  The only name on the plaque who he recognized was Arthur Silvester, the old army veteran.  Hamilton then remembers that the doctor in the hospital he woke up to stated that Silvester was the only one who didn't fully lose consciousness during the incident. Hamilton comes to the conclusion that he and the others are living in a world perceived by Silvester.  Everything about this world was normal to Silvester.  It's his reality.  Hamilton then immediately gathers the seven others from the tour group to go over what he discovered and what they need to do.  They end up going to the hospital Sunday morning, where Silvester is being held for his injuries.  They confront him and all hell breaks lose when angels start coming out of the TV to attack the group.  Miss Reiss shoves Silvester violently and he hits his head and becomes unconscious.  The angels and everything in Silvester's 'reality' disappears.  The group cheers thinking they have won, but they soon realize they are in someone else's 'world.'

The group has now entered Edith Pritchet's 'reality.' One that resembles a Victorian Universe. The audience discovers that Marsha has no sexual organs and her body is compared to that of a bee's. Hamilton and the rest of the group have realized that if they can get the person whose world they're in to become unconscious, they can escape and may be closer to the 'real world.' In this universe, Hamilton encounters Silky again, this time as a 'sexless' friend of Marsha's. They end up driving back to Hamilton's house where Marsha has prepared dinner.  Hamilton and Marsha have an argument about what's going on in this world and how no one seems to mind or even notice that there is no Russia or car horns or factories.  Marsha states that the people don't notice because it isn't in 'their' world, it's Pritchet's, anything in her 'reality' is the reality of the world.  Aggravated with everything going on, Hamilton tells his wife that he is going to have 'sexual intercourse' with Silky to defy this 'reality'.  He takes Silky into his audiophile room, where the audience can see how much interest Hamilton has for music (important detail that comes up in my analysis). Eventually, Hamilton kisses Silky and after that she disappears.  Pritchet, who is now at his house (along with the others in the group) states that she abolished her because that kind of behavior is non-existent in her 'reality.' Hamilton recognizes that some people from the group such as Laws and Marsha don't mind this world and are happy in it.  Hamilton tries to tell them that this isn't the 'real world,' it's governed by Edith Pritchet.  Laws makes it clear to Hamilton why he's okay with it; he has a good job, a life where he is happy.  He states that Hamilton wouldn't understand because in the 'real world,' Hamilton grew up with a well-known father, he has a wife, a great job, a cat, etc.  Hamilton still decides he is going to get Pritchet unconscious and he, Marsha and the rest of the group (besides Laws) decide to take Pritchet on a picnic where they plan to poison her.  Their plan does not work, since Pritchet is aware that they are trying to get her to become unconscious, so she abolishes the chloroform, making it disappear.  Hamilton, McFeyffe, Marsha and Reiss decide to try a different route and convince Pritchet to abolish everything in the world, leaving nothing.  There was no longer her world left which meant her reality and consciousness left with it.  After thinking he has won again, Hamilton hears a familiar voice thanking him for doing his part very well in the plan of getting Pritchet to become unconscious.  The voice belonged to Joan Reiss.

In Reiss' world, everything was the result of her own paranoia.  Hamilton now owns a gun, his house resembles a living organism: blood spouts from the faucet, the cupboards open and close on its own, the hall resembles the throat, the walls are of similar texture to skin.  Silky is in this world again, except this time she resembles a spider, making webs in the audiophile room, trying to trap Hamilton.  Laws saves him and they try to escape from this house that is very much 'alive.'  They manage to get out and conspire a plan to kill Reiss.  Reiss surprises the group (this isn't as surprising to the audience if they are paying attention to the different realities.  Her world is filled with paranoia, so it only makes sense if she is incredibly cautious and paranoid herself).  She tells them how she knows they've been conspiring to kill her for a while.  Laws admits that it's true and they try to kill her (killing her will force her to become unconscious, thus leaving the world).  David, Edith Pritchet's son is successful and they leave Reiss world.

At this point, Hamilton hopes to wake up at Bevatron, but instead, Hamilton and the rest of the group are in a world where capitalists are savages and the working class is rioting, throwing bricks at them.  They manage to escape the riot and try to head to the Hamilton's household, but instead they find that their neighborhood is filled with gun shops and armed soldiers, so they head to the Safe Harbor.  Silky is back to her 'old' self, a prostitute.  Hamilton notices that the bar is filled with armed workmen and that the bar is actually a front for a Communist Party cell.  He realizes what he has to do and Marsha is knocked out of her consciousness.  Nothing happens.  Hamilton realizes that he is not in Marsha's 'reality.'  Hamilton discovers that this is all McFeyffe's 'reality' and that HE is actually the communist and not his wife.  McFeyffe mentions that he made Hamilton's wife seem like the communist because her 'type' is dangerous. She's an individual, who basically looks at all perspectives, but follows her own laws and ethics, refusing to accept authority.  He describes how this kind of behavior undermines society and how it 'topples' the whole structure.  Hamilton manages to attack him and McFeyffe, as a result, is weakened tremendously.

Hamilton then wakes up to the chaos of the Bevatron incident, everyone being assisted by Red Cross medical assistants.  Some time goes by and Hamilton tries to explain to the Colonel at his 'real' job at California Maintenance Labs that McFeyffe is the real communist.  The Colonel states that this is just Hamilton's perspective and he does not have any hard evidence to prove it.  There is a report on Hamilton's wife with a trail of her recent meetings and petitions she signed.  An interesting quote in the conversation with the Colonel:

"No proof of what goes on in Charley McFeyffe's mind.  Any more than he had proof of what goes on in my wife's mind" (Dick, 235).

Hamilton leaves knowing nothing will really get solved, he is okay with losing his job, he understands the outcome.  He mentions that he can always get another job, he's just glad that Marsha was telling the truth about her not being a Communist.  After his experiences in the different realities, his perspective has changed in the 'real world.'  He states that he is always going to be honest and say exactly what he thinks.  He decides to go into business with the tour guide, Bill Laws.  Edith Pritchet invests in their company (building phonographs so people can listen to music).  Laws is then bitten by an insect, an earwig.


My Analysis

First off, this book was absolutely intriguing.  I could not put it down even when I wanted to.  The concept of reality and the idea of different perspectives have recently been interesting themes to try to analyze/evaluate.  Dick does a great job IMO giving readers a chance to analyze these reoccurring themes in his books. In Eye of the Sky, we are looking through the eyes of Jack Hamilton.  For the most part, he has a pretty stable lifestyle: a wife, a job, a nice house, etc.  It's when he is about to lose his job and is questioning whether his wife is a Communist or not, is when he starts to live in other 'realities.'

The first reality that Hamilton enters is that of Arthur Silvester.  Silvester is an old man who is also a war veteran.  There is some subtlety in the novel that hints to what kind of person Silvester might be:

"Hamilton observed the man wore a tarnished wedge of metal on his cotton jacket.  The hell with him he thought bitterly.  The hell with patriotism in general.  In the specific and the abstract.  Birds of a feather, soldiers and cops.  Anti-intellectual and anti-Negro.  Anti-everything except beer, dogs and guns" (Dick, 14-15).

When Hamilton enters Silvester's world, he is in a world where the society is ran by religion.  There is no need for logic, as long as you can pray.  The religion is called Second Babiism.  Second Babiism is also a cult that Silvester joined and truly believed in, which ultimately contributed to the way he perceived the society in the 'reality' before the Bevatron explosion.  It's interesting to compare this to the world we live in today (outside the book, of course).  We all live on Earth, some of us live in the same state, or even the same city.  The fact that two or more people can be at the same place at the same time and perceive things differently is what I think PKD was trying to get at in Eye of the Sky.  All 8 characters were in the same place at the same time (Bevatron explosion).  From the outside, all the characters seemed 'normal' and it seemed to me (as the reader) that the characters and I were all in the same 'reality.'  After the explosion, the audience gets insight to the perspectives of 'reality' that some of the characters actually viewed as 'normal.'

After Silvester, we look through the eyes of Edith Pritchet, Joan Reiss and last but not least, Charley McFeyffe.  I won't go into much detail about their worlds (more detail about them in the Summary), the point is that those worlds are their perspectives of 'reality' and probably how they lived it, since everything in the owner's world seemed normal to them.  McFeyffe's world was an interesting twist, because a reader might assume that the Communist world belongs to Marsha.  I was skeptical about that because after reading Ubik, I knew there had to be some twist that was ready to unfold.  At first, I didn't know whose world it was, but I had a strong feeling it wasn't Marsha's.  When Marsha is left unconscious and the reality of the world continues, there's only really two other people left that I assumed: Hamilton or McFeyffe.  When McFeyffe was revealed as the maker of the world, it soon dawned upon me that there were subtle details (very nuanced, IMO) in the beginning of the book about McFeyffe's behavior and attitude.  McFeyffe was targeting Marsha due to the fact that she had looked at different perspectives on certain ideas and topics.  Although she was attending meetings and signing petitions that related to concepts of Communism, she was an individual (as McFayffe puts it), she didn't belong to one tribal group.  Instead, she opened her POV to different perspectives. If one fit appropriately with what she thought was 'right,' she acknowledged it (i.e contributing money to the Society for the Advancement of Colored People).  I for one liked Marsha's approach and character throughout the book. Being open to different perspectives, ideas, and concepts can be good when trying to objectively analyze anything.  If one has a preset ideology they filter things through, then there is little to no objectivity, because whatever is being analyzed is being analyzed through one set of eyes, one perspective, one idea.  Reading PKD novels such as Ubik and Eye in the Sky have really helped me understand the importance of different perspectives and how reality and the world we live in can differ from person to person.  This is a great thing because it emphasizes individuality.  Groups based on different ideologies can (slightly) hinder someone's perspective on articles, books, and studies they read or alter their perspective on movies, TV shows, etc.  It's not necessarily a bad thing, but I think it is best to not accept one ideology and to be more open to different perspectives (even the ones you don't agree with).  Reading/listening to even the perspectives you don't agree with, with an open mind will allow room for objectively, criticizing certain ideas and concepts.  There are some ideas/groups I don't necessarily agree with, but I try not to ignore or unfairly criticize them based on what they believe.  If I can objectively look at information they have written and criticize it based on empirical evidence, then I will do so, regardless of their ideology.  There have been multiple times where I acquire greater knowledge in specific areas by reading well written articles and/or studies by people who identify with a specific ideological group that I don't truly agree with.  I myself, want to be like Marsha, an individual who is open to different perspectives, even if I don't agree with them.  Doing this will further assist me in objective criticism/analysis of certain articles/studies I read, and to open my mind to new ideas that I may not have thought of before.

Leaving the theme of the importance of different perspectives, I want to talk about Silky for a little bit.  She is an important part of the novel.  She somewhat represents the 'bad' in the different realities.  She is a prostitute in the world ruled by religion, a friend of Marsha's who ultimately ends up kissing Hamilton in the Victorian world, a spider like creature in the world of paranoia (where everything is out to get you) and back to the prostitute in the Communist world.  In my opinion, I think she represents the imperfection in all societies, all realities, all perspectives.  Nothing is perfect and even though one can try to conceptualize a perfect world, I don't think it could be possible.  If humans have never lived in a world of perfection, how can our ideas and perspectives be perfect too? In Eye of the Sky, I thought that was why Silky was put in the plot.  To show the audience that there is no such thing as a perfect world, even though the characters saw their reality as accurate representations of the world.

Another interesting detail I noticed was the use of bugs and insects to show the characters whether or not they were in 'reality' or someone else's perspective on 'reality.'  Hamilton gets stung by the bee on his way home from the hospital (in Silvester's 'reality').  Marsha is compared to a sexless bee and all insects disappear in Edith Pritchet's 'reality.'  Laws turns into a creature representing some sort of bug/insect in Reiss' 'reality.'  What is interesting is that in the end, when they are in the 'real world,' Laws gets bitten by an earwig.  Laws and Hamilton also want to go into the business of making phonographs so that people can listen to music.  This is important because it is shown that Hamilton has a vast collection and great appreciation for music. In one part of the book, Hamilton wants to show Silky his collection before Edith Pritchet abolishes music:

"Let's get down there before she abolishes music." (Dick, 139)

The ending is ambiguous so this is my opinion, but I think there may be a possibility that they are in Hamilton's 'reality'.  The reality, when he realizes that his perspective has changed after the experiences he's encountered.  The 'reality' that still includes doing what he enjoys, a field in music/building/electronics.  I think though, that the ending shouldn't be analyzed as deeply as the concept and theme behind the book.  PKD is notorious for his endings, leaving the reader satisfied and unsatisfied at the same time, and I appreciate that!  The main focus and message to get from this book is to recognize and to be open to new perspectives in life.  Realize that you and your sibling don't look at the world the same, people can see the world through their main beliefs and set ideologies.  Hamilton realized this and at the end his experiences through the different worlds ultimately changed his perspective on 'reality.' Marsha had already understood that everyone had different perspectives and how it affected others in the world.

Eye in the Sky was a great read, and I recommend it to anyone who is interested in understanding the importance of how the world is perceived differently by everyone.  How ideas and concepts can be filtered through certain perspectives, and how opening the mind to different perspectives will ultimately assist one to obtain an objective view on different theories, hypotheses, ideas and topics.  To ultimately come up with a conclusion of their own, trying to disregard ideological beliefs and predetermined biases.

Interesting Links

Note: I don't agree with all hypotheses in some of the links, however I think it will be beneficial for myself and readers to look at all sides of the concept of reality/differences in perspective.


1) A Matter of Perspective

2) Consciousness and Its Place in Nature

3) Space, Time and Consciousness

4) What is Reality?

5) The Physical World As A Virtual Reality

6) Consciousness and Awareness